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The sources of data varied by species. Lurida records of presence originated from publications (56%) versus unpublished (41%) and iNaturalist records (3%). Gigas records of presence originated from unpublished records (54%), compared to iNaturalist (30%) and published literature (17%).
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The Olympia Oyster Company was at this location, adjacent to the J.J. At first, the companies cultivated the tiny Olympia Oyster, which went into steep decline through pollution and overharvest. In about 1918, oyster hobbyist E.N. Steele and others introduced the Pacific Oyster to the area, which is the oyster variety now most commonly found here, although the Olympia oyster is staging a minor comeback.
Lessons learned and conservation recommendations for O. lurida
Gigas spread, it is striking that most of the records of its presence were from unpublished records and iNaturalist (84% of records compared to 44% for O. lurida). This again may be a function of the more recent introduction of M. Gigas, such that publications of its presence are lagging its explosive spread.
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Recruitment monitoring at far-flung places would not be possible without the help of our many partners. In the past decade, there has been a proliferation of what is often called “community science;” the crowd-sourced data that have been collected through such efforts has been widely analyzed by scientists, especially for terrestrial vertebrates [74, 75]. A comprehensive review of monitoring in Europe suggested volunteer monitoring can yield excellent assessments of biodiversity, so long as the spatial/temporal sampling frequency is high and protocols are robust [75].
Olympia Oyster Restoration
They demonstrated that the network size defined by this metric correlated significantly with stability in recruitment (i.e., larger networks had less recruitment failure). For both species, we thus considered sites with living adult oysters observed between 2000–2020 and within 30 km of each other to be part of the same larval network. Because it may be useful for future mapping efforts by others, we describe here the coordination and staffing for this project. A small team from NOOC and Pew coordinated the effort. We determined which data would be readily feasible to collect (including from historical sources and from experts providing personal records) and designed an interactive data collection tool using ArcGIS Online® by Esri®.
Our mapping of distribution and abundance of a native oyster across its entire range yielded novel insights that were not evident from previous characterizations at the level of individual estuaries or smaller regions. For conservation organizations or funding organizations that operate at a large scale, a range-wide assessment can reveal critical areas, with the biggest returns for conservation investment. In our case, the study revealed that Mexico, northern California and Oregon appear to have the most imperiled oyster populations, and yet an earlier synthesis revealed that these areas have had little investment in restoration [28]. This finding will spark future investments. Range-wide recovery plans are typically generated for species legally recognized as endangered at a national or international scale, though the quality of such plans could be improved [64].
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In some instances where the services provided by M. Gigas are considered desirable, expansion of the non-native species may be welcomed. The novel database we created allowed us to identify temporal and spatial changes in O. Gigas distributions and abundances, in particular comparing the “current” period (2000–2020) to earlier times, and determining how their distribution and abundance differ. We characterized spatial patterns to determine whether there were differences across regions, which was only possible due to the consistent methodology we applied range-wide.
We do so by spreading Pacific oyster shell in the lower intertidal area to provide structure for natural settlement of larval Olympia oysters and to re-establish oyster bed habitat. The Pacific oyster shell is sourced from oyster farmers in Washington, and then sluiced off barges at priority restoration areas in Puget Sound. Catch a glimpse of shell sluicing during our 15-acre enhancement project in Sinclair Inlet in 2019 in the video below. (A) The distribution index for both O. Gigas is plotted against latitude using local polynomial regression fitting for this distinctly non-linear relationship. (B) The distribution index for both O.
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Since most estuaries on this coast are dominated by soft sediments, oysters in natural estuaries in the past would have been limited to settling on each other or small bits of gravel or shell. Prior to European settlement of this coast, native oysters formed extensive biogenic beds in various estuaries, but these were mostly depleted by the early 1900s [17, 46]. These beds form when oysters settle on live or dead oyster shells, and may take centuries to form [47]. Our compilation of data on current substrate use showed that in Washington, O.
Gigas, for which the next closest adults to the south (contained within network M-10, not pictured) are in Southern California. We used a crowdsourced database approach to integrate records from the published literature and iNaturalist entered by trained student interns with data input by researchers and resource management agencies. In just a few months during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic we were able to compile orders of magnitude more data on oyster distribution and abundance on this coast than previous syntheses that took years to compile [16]. Overall, the northern distribution limits of the two species on this coast are similar (Fig 3) and appear to have remained fairly constant over time. Lurida, latitude 52° 61′ N appears to be the northern limit, and the most northern estuarine complex occupied is the North Coast Fjords. Surveys were not carried out in exactly the same sites, but there is no evidence for any range expansion or contraction at this boundary.
In other parts of the coast, such as Northern California (other than the San Francisco Bay area) and Oregon, oysters occur in small networks, typically isolated from the nearest neighboring network by hundreds of kilometers. The connectivity patterns we found in this spatial analysis correspond generally to those elucidated by a recent genetic analysis of the species [50] (Fig G in S1 File). We recommend that future conservation efforts focus on enhancing networks and network connectivity. Network size can be enhanced by restoring oysters to additional sites within a larger footprint than currently occupied, but within “easy” dispersal distance of larvae. This is especially vital for the smallest networks on the coast (e.g., O-7, O-8, and O-10, Fig 10). These are high priorities for additional study (to determine whether there are more sites nearby, which is a possibility for poorly characterized regions) and for potential network enhancement.
Lurida that was our focus and the non-native M. Abundance, network size and connectivity peaked in the same regions for both species. This makes clear that any conservation planning for the native species must proceed with consideration of the non-native one. Perhaps the non-native species serves similar functions to the native and can replace these functions if it increases in abundance in places where the native is rare [60]. However, numerous negative impacts must also be considered [54]. Gigas has a generally similar distribution and abundance to O.
For terrestrial systems, there has been an emerging recognition of the importance of thoughtful range-wide strategic planning [65–67]. Such large-scale conservation planning across the range of marine species, especially invertebrates, remains rare. Based on how valuable it proved for our system, we recommend expansion of range-wide species conservation assessments and prioritization. An unexpected finding of our investigation was the similarity in distribution between two quite distantly related oyster species, the native O.
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